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重症患者持续肾脏替代治疗相关并发症概述

2017-11-03 李宏山 重症医学

急性肾损伤(AKI)在ICU中时常发生,其发生率约40-57%。约13%的AKI患者接受了体外治疗,其伴随着住院时间的延长和死亡风险的升高。重症患者肾脏替代治疗(RRT)采用的方式或者是间断血液透析或者是持续肾脏替代治疗(CRRT)。


唐山市人民医院重症医学科 李宏山 译

序言

急性肾损伤(AKI)在ICU中时常发生,其发生率约40-57%。约13%的AKI患者接受了体外治疗,其伴随着住院时间的延长和死亡风险的升高。重症患者肾脏替代治疗(RRT)采用的方式或者是间断血液透析或者是持续肾脏替代治疗(CRRT)。

重症患者疾病过程中并发AKI开始RRT的最佳时机或者使用何种方式仍然是需要讨论的。最近的一项系统性前瞻性研究显示重症患者并发AKI“早期”开始RRT并不能改善患者的生存率或者减少住ICU或住院时间。至于选用何种方式,应该个体化并且需要建立在特殊临床状态的基础上。CRRT能更缓慢的清除过多的液体和有效的排除小分子和大分子代谢产物,间断的RRT更实用,柔和,花费低,减少抗凝和出血风险,并且能更有效的清除小分子溶质,例如钾。最近一项前瞻性研究比较了患者接受CRRT或间断血液透析对死亡率、短期和长期肾脏恢复率之间的差异。结果显示CRRT并不能改善患者30天或6个月的预后。CRRT似乎对液体过负荷的患者有益,但可能对存在血流动力学衰竭的患者是有害的。CRRT也有并发症。由于患者的复杂性,对于区别是体外治疗(技术性并发症)相关的并发症还是由于潜在疾病进程的结果导致的并发症(临床并发症)是十分困难的(表1)。此外,随着持续的技术进步,新的治疗适应症和对体外治疗团队专家的需要也逐渐的导致并发症发生率和各种并发症相对程度的变化,故把他们统称为技术-临床并发症更合适。过去透析损伤的概念是指能够早期被识别的CRRT相关的不利或有害的事件并且建议减少其的发生。本章节详细阐述了目前CRRT相关的技术-临床并发症。



血管通路

一个适当的有效的暂时的血管通路是AKI进行有效CRRT治疗重要的组成部分,但是对于终末期肾病的患者来保护血管瘘是重要的。在ICU中使用中心静脉导管(CVC)来做体外治疗具有高流量,暂时性且无血管隧道和双血管通道的特点。

血管通路的部位包括锁骨下静脉、颈内静脉和股静脉。改善全球肾脏病预后组织(KDIGO)指南推荐使用超声在右颈内静脉放置高流量CVCs来实施体外治疗。股静脉导管优于左颈内静脉导管来减少置管失败,锁骨下静脉应该是最后的选择。另外,推荐在放置锁骨下静脉或颈内静脉导管后和使用导管前需要行X线检查。

并发症可能与导管功能不良或感染有关。导管功能不良,由于血液再循环通过导管双腔导致血液浓缩。短的股静脉导管(9-13cm)较长的股静脉导管(18-25cm)具有更高的再循环率。

任何导管的扭曲或变形都会导致血流速和压力的变化;这也会导致层流的减少,伴随纤维蛋白的沉积,导管动脉端负压升高,静脉端正压下降和透析时滤器寿命的缩短。

体外治疗持续时间的延长医院感染的风险也随之升高:患者可能会发生导管定植或导管相关性的全身感染。定植和感染的风险受插入的位置,使用的时间和CRRT模式的影响。最近的证据表明在ICU中使用双腔颈静脉和股静脉CVCs用于RRT治疗(包括间断透析),这些风险的发生率并无明显的差异。然而,这个结果可能并不适用于那些第二次放置双腔CVC或更换已经置入的导管的接受RRT治疗的患者。最近Chua等的研究显示使用CRRT开始和过程中,双腔股静脉CVCs与非股静脉相比更安全并且与非股静脉部位相比其定植和感染的发生更低。替换为股静脉导管作为血管通路进行CRRT治疗其定植和感染的风险是可以接受的。尽管导丝引导与静脉穿刺植入相比并不会导致透析导管的细菌定植或感染,但其导管功能不良的发生率却增加超过2倍。然而,反复使用和留置股静脉CVCs对于肥胖患者并不适合,因为其发生细菌定植的风险较高。这些重要的发现可能有助于对重症患者行RRT治疗血管通路的选择。

滤器寿命缩短

循环凝血增加护士工作量、治疗花费和血液丢失。这不仅仅导致滤器工作效率降低,而且伴随有效透析时间和剂量的降低。此外,所说的透析剂量的减少不仅仅是由于机器故障,也因为诊疗过程中

治疗的中断或者由于工作人员的不熟练。滤器的效用降低见于以下情况:随着时间的延长筛选系数降低从而导致溶质清除障碍。另外,超滤作用的降低是由于蛋白沉积导致蛋白层形成从而增强中空纤维的堵塞。

气体栓塞

治疗开始后,气体可能仍然存在于体外回路中或者可能开始进入体外回路,这是因为气体可能部分存在于体外管路中(血泵前泵,泵)。透析机器的体外回路中产生微气泡可见于减压病或机械心脏瓣膜病的患者。微气泡堵塞毛细血管血流,导致组织缺血,进而出现炎症反应和补体激活,微循环障碍和组织损伤。

所有的设备都能够探测到循环中气泡的存在并且中断血流,发出报警信号。空气探测器保护患者发生气体栓塞,但是并不能阻止微气泡的存在。

液体平衡

虽然CRRT设备的可信性和安全性已经大大改善,但在治疗过程中仍然存在潜在的液体平衡的错误。新一代的CRRT设备更可信但仍可能出现一些问题,例如:在“水平衡错误”报警出现时有些情况不需要中断治疗。最近的软件系统在重复数次报警后会强制操作人员中断治疗。然而,大多数CRRT设备并不中断治疗,使其使用者忽视这种重复的报警,从而对患者产生潜在的危险。精确的液体管理系统对于儿科患者中是极其有用的:由于缺乏更安全的选择,临床医生一般采用成人的CRRT设备用于儿童。不幸的是,这可能导致液体平衡的不精确。此外,目前使用的成人CRRT设备的体外管路血容量超过了很多儿童全身血容量的15%,具有发生凝血、低血压,低体温和输液并发症的风险,从而对较小的患者的健康造成危害。对于RRT来说,不要低估对充分的实践训练,清晰的方案和流程的需要的必要性。

血流动力学

血流动力学不稳定和组织灌注不足是危重患者主要的特征。下列因素可能影响血流动力学的稳定:超滤的速度会直接影响患者的血容量;过多的液体清除导致血管内容量的减少,也会出血心肌功能受损,从而导致全身灌注的减少。有创血压监测,评估中心静脉压(CVP),尿量和全身组织灌注有助于维持稳定的血流动力学和最佳的容量状态。一项前瞻性观察研究评估了对于需要血管活性药物维持的合并AKI的危重患者在CRRT开始时使用“缓慢的血流安全方案”对其的影响。研究共纳入了52例患者总共205个循环回路。缓慢的血流安全方案由以下几部分组成:1)血流速设定50ml/min直到血液完全充满管路;2)每5-10分钟增加血流速20-50ml/min,直到达到200ml/min。在CRRT开始治疗的最初4h,平均动脉压(MAP)、心率、CVP或血管活性药物剂量与之前相比无明显变化。仅仅有13位患者的16套管路中其MAP>20%。实施缓慢血流速方案有助于限制血流动力学障碍的发生。

生物相容性

生物不相容性包括一系列体液和细胞反应(凝血,补体释放,细胞因子和血小板),由血液暴露在外源性物质而触发。使用生物材料与血液直接接触会激活凝血系统和炎症反应。这些反应是宿主防御机制对抗外来物质的本能反应。天然抑制因子不足导致病例过程的发生,包括微血栓产生或血栓形成,出血并发症,血流动力学不稳定,发热,水肿和器官损伤。这些有害事件在长期和大量外源性材料在血管内植入和体外血液循环时非常常见。这些反应是十分复杂并且不易完全理解的。活性材料与血液因子和酶类接触导致蛋白增加和能量消耗。为了减少生物不相容性反应的发生,增大了膜的孔径并且改善了生物材料(例如微流体和无膜系统,活性膜等)。这些改变优化了小分子量蛋白的清除并且能直接清除炎症调节因子。文章报道仅有少数由于激活缓激肽而对透析膜产生过敏反应,尤其见于先前使用血管紧张素转换酶抑制剂的患者。

低体温

热量丢失,热量保存和热量产生之间的相互作用来维持细胞功能所需的最佳的温度;5-50%的RRT患者的血液可能暴露在环境温度中很长时间。伴随热量的丢失还包括能量的丢失,从而增加氧需要,血管收缩,抑制白细胞功能和凝结。为了这个原因,推荐监测体温并且如果可能使用外部的加温装置。新的设备具有有外部加温装置但也是不充分的。可以静脉输注热的液体但也不能防止CRRT期间的低体温。

出血

发生AKI的危重患者进行RRT治疗全身抗凝时其出血性并发症高达30%以上。出血是血液系统的并发症,可见于体外治疗期间。循环回路凝血和滤器凝血、不足或过量的抗凝治疗、CRRT系统管路脱开均可导致出血并发症。另外,脓毒症、高粘滞血症和抗磷脂抗体综合征的重症患者也会导致机体高凝状态。

此外,尽管关于生物相容性取得了明显的尖部,但目前所有的膜材料均或多或少会激活凝血系统。虽然有研究揭示了循环凝血、血小板计数和血小板输注之间的关系,但研究解释说评估是在体外循环期间进行的,这隐藏着之前提到的不同原因之间的复杂的相互作用。重症患者并不是全都需要抗凝,但如果需要抗凝,应该使用生物半衰期短并且能够使用常规的实验室检测监测的普通肝素。然而普通肝素对血小板具有复杂的影响,可导致直接激活或免疫介导的血小板减少症。
局部肝素化是可以实施的另外一个选择,在体外循环的回输端输注鱼精蛋白,但还不是十分成功。低分子肝素广泛用于抗血栓治疗,具有更显著的药物代谢动力学和抗凝作用,较长的半衰期更依赖于肾功能,发生肝素诱导的血小板减少症的可能性更小。可替代肝素的另一个选择是枸橼酸抗凝,通过螯合离子钙而达到抗凝,在滤器中会诱导严重的低钙血症,以达到保持循环通畅和减少出血的作用。枸橼酸抗凝是局部的,其本身能被CRRT部分清除,另一部分通过代谢排除。在药物代谢监测充分,方案许可的情况下,推荐CRRT时使用枸橼酸抗凝。

几个非随机试验和两个小规模的随机试验显示接受局部枸橼酸抗凝可减少患者出血和输血。最近的一项荟萃分析表明CRRT期间枸橼酸和肝素抗凝的作用相似。枸橼酸抗凝降低出血风险却并未增加代谢性碱中毒的发生率。KDIGO指南推荐如无禁忌,危重患者建议使用枸橼酸抗凝。枸橼酸阻止生物不相容性诱导的细胞激活,减轻炎症反应。潜在的并发症包括低钙血症、代谢性碱中毒、高钠血症和中毒。尽管如此,还是有很多的证据证明枸橼酸在重度肝衰竭/肝移植或肝缺血导致的重度脓毒症休克患者中使用的安全性。抗凝对保持管路寿命是非常重要,而采取的措施对于保证循环回路寿命也是同样重要的(表2)。



电解质紊乱

AKI伴随电解质和酸碱平衡的紊乱,如高钾血症、代谢性酸中毒、低钙血症和高磷血症。AKI透析开始可能有效的治疗这些并发症但也可能引发新的电解质紊和酸碱平衡紊乱,例如低钾血症,低磷血症和代谢性碱中毒,这需要改变透析液的交换和成分。CRRT电解质并发症可被分为两类:

1)在血液透析或血液滤过期间由于不充分的交换导致电解质的移动而出现的并发症
2)使用枸橼酸钠抗凝导致的并发症。

特别是肝衰竭的患者,代谢枸橼酸盐的能力降低引起高枸橼酸血症从而导致低钙血症和代谢性酸中毒。枸橼酸作为抗凝剂具有独一无二的特质就是与钙离子进行复杂的结合,而钙离子是凝血过程中一个重要的成分,能够被滤器清除。枸橼酸的螯合作用和滤器后钙离子输注对于钙离子失衡具有不同的责任。

营养丢失

合并AKI的危重患者接受CRRT治疗时应该认识到营养丢失的问题。丢失的原因包括过度分解代谢状态,营养素经过透析膜丢失,胰岛素抵抗伴随的尤其是瘦肉蛋白分解代谢,炎性因子释放和代谢性酸中毒。

接受RRT的患者,蛋白给予量应该在1-1.5g/kg/天。能力供给应该在20-25kcal/kg/天。CRRT期间营养支持应该建立在葡萄糖、氨基酸和微量元素的体外丢失的基础上。经过滤器丢失的氨基酸占摄入蛋白的10-20%。大分子蛋白,例如白蛋白在体外治疗期间也会丢失;高超滤率和高通透性的新膜材可能导致显著的负氮平衡。

危重患者通常由于胰岛素抵抗和肝糖异生增加而出现高血糖。为了避免显著的弥散丢失,透析液中的糖浓度为100-180mg/dl,相当于40-80g/天,这通常会导致患者血糖的升高。相比之下,无糖透析液通常会导致低血糖和营养素摄入不足。使用这样的溶液会诱导糖异生,利用氨基酸作为底物,故不推荐使用。水溶性维生素和微量元素容易被滤过,CRRT期间会出现丢失。抗氧化调节剂包括锌、硒、铜、锰、铬和维生素E能自由通过透析膜而丢失。维生素的丢失量可达推荐摄入量的1.5倍,因此维生素C丢失的临床表现仍不清晰。不推荐补充维生素A,因为有导致蓄积中毒的风险。CRRT时活化的维生素D数量减少,而防止其还原会阻止全身性损伤。

药物清除

RRT期间药物清除仍然是不清楚的。CRRT对药物清除的影响是不同的,这主要取决于CRRT模式、超滤量、透析液流速、滤器和患者的残余肾功能。药物清除的程度直接与设备本身有关,取决于置换液的模式(前稀释或后稀释)、超滤量和/或透析液流速。如果可以应该根据患者的临床状态监测血清药物浓度。

RRT药物清除临床上大多数为亲水性抗生素(例如β内酰胺类、氨基糖苷类、糖肽类),很少为亲脂性化合物(例如喹诺酮类、恶唑烷类),而这些通常也不能被肾清除。CRRT对药物清除的影响是复杂的,药剂师为这些患者进行药量的调整可能是有益的。

结论

CRRT的不利影响与生物不相容性、出血、代谢失调、热量丢失和人为过失有关。应当重视透析损伤的概念,制定早期识别副作用的详细步骤并提出新的策略来避免并发症的发生。推荐要不断训练医生和护士,更好的掌握如何防止CRRT并发症和避免人为过失。

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    2018-03-11 丁鹏鹏
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    2017-11-04 小溪流

    学习了

    0

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    2017-11-03 周周人

    学习

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